The Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD)

Introduction

The Han Dynasty was preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms in China. The Han Dynasty lasted for 426 years, from 206 BC to 220 AD. The dynasty was divided into two periods, the Former Han or Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-8 AD) and the Later Han or Eastern Han Dynasty (24-220 AD), due to an establishment of a new "dynasty" that lasted for 16 years and only had one emperor, Wang Mang, who was from a landholding family. The capital city during the Western Han Dynasty was at Chang'an, but the capital city was relocated to Luoyang during the Eastern Han Dynasty. The Han Dynasty was considered to be one of the most prominent dynasties of Chinese History for its accomplishments and glory, most Chinese today still call themselves the Han people. "Han Dynasty"

The map of the Western Han Dynasty in 87 BC
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Han_map.jpg)

The map of the Eastern Han Dynasty in 189 AD
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Han_provinces.jpg)

Reason for Take-Over

After the death of Qin Shi Huang, the last emperor of the Qin Dynasty, the people began revolting and fighting for land and power. With continuous rebellion one after another led by a military commander called Xiang Yu, the Qin Dynasty crumbled in 206 BC. Xiang Yu then divieded the land into 19 feudal states and ruled over them to his own contentment. "Xiang Yu" Liu Bang, who was given a piece of land from Xiang Yu, improved the agriculture and soon he had a large army of his own. Liu Bang then waged war against all other feudal states and eventually overthrew Xiang Yu in 202 BC, and in that year, he proclaimed himself the first emperor of the Han Dynasty and brought all states under his control to regain peace. "Emergence of Han Dynasty" "Emperor Gaozu of Han"

Leaders of the Civilization

There were a total of 30 emperors during the reign of the Han Dynasty; 15 emperors during the Western Han Dynasty and 15 during the Eastern Han Dynasty. The names are listed below. "Sovereigns of Han Dynasty"

Western Han Dynasty (206 BC -9 AD)

- Emperor Gaozu (206-195 BC)
- Emperor Hui (194-188 BC)
- Emperor Shao Gong (188-184 BC)
- Emperor Shao Hong (184-180 BC)
- Emperor Wen (179-157 BC)
- Emperor Jing (156-141 BC)
- Emperor Wu (140-87 BC)
- Emperor Zhao (86-74 BC)
- The Prince of Changyi (74 BC)
- Emperor Xuan (73-49 BC)
- Emperor Yuan (48-33 BC)
- Emperor Cheng (32-7 BC)
- Emperor Ai (6-1 BC)
- Emperor Ping (1 BC-5 AD)
- Emperor Ruzi Ying (6-8 AD)

Emperor Gaozu (Liu Bang), the first emperor of
the Han Dynasty
(http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/HanGaozu.jpg)

Eastern Han Dynasty (23-220 AD)

- Emperor Geng Shi (23-25 AD)
- Emperor Guang Wu (25-57 AD)
- Emperor Ming (56-75 AD)
- Emperor Zhang (76-88 AD)
- Emperor He (89-105 AD)
- Emperor Shang (106 AD)
- Emperor An (106-125 AD)
- Emperor Shao (126 AD)
- Emperor Shun (125-144 AD)
- Emperor Chong (144-145 AD)
- Emperor Zhi (145-146 AD)
- Emperor Huan (146-168 AD)
- Emperor Ling (168-189 AD)
- Emperor Shao (189 AD)
- Emperor Xian (189-220 AD)

Emperor Xian, the last emperor of
the Han Dynasty
(http://www.nsc.gov.tw/files/popsc/2003_327/9212-10-05.jpg)

Other Leader of the Same Time Period

Around 63 BC to 44 BC was the reign of Julius Caesar, a Roman military and political leader who was considered one of the most influential men in world history for his role in transforming the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire through his military and political conquests. From his alliance with Licinius Crasscus and Pompeius Magnus, Julius Caesar gained control of the Roman politics. From his conquest Gaul, the Roman world was extended far away to the Atlantic Ocean, where he gained power over the Roman armies. Julius Caesar was declared Dictator for life after his extensive reforms of the government and society. Despite all the glory he had, his reign was put to a sudden stop when Caesar's former friend, Junius Brutus, led a group of senates to stab him to death on March 15 in 44 BC. The assassination of Caesar resulted in a Roman civil war led by Caesar's adopted heir, Octavianus, against Brutus and Cassius, the sole leaders of Caesar's assassination. "Julius Caesar"

A Bronze Statue of Julius Caesar
(http://www.bible-history.com/past/images/julius_caesar_statue.jpg)

Accomplishments

The Government of the Han Dynasty period changes from one emperor to another. The government retained some the old Qin Dynasty's method of feudal states during the reign of the first emperor. After the first emperor, Taoism was also implemented into the Legalist methods , which helped the civilians by lowering tax. But most importantly, during emperor Wudi's reign, which was the most prosperous period of the Han rule, the Government had also combined Confucianism into its policies. The use of Confucianism led to a civil service exam in which the officials must pass in order to be granted a governing post. The civil service system lasted ever since until it was abolished in 1911 AD. "Government of the Han Dynasty"

The culture, literature, society, and technology flourished under the Han rule. Sima Qian, China's most famous historian, was born in the time of the Han Dynasty. His work, the Records of the Grand Historians of the Shiji, provides evidence dated back to the time of the Xia Dynasty (2100-1600 BC) that was said to be legendary. Shi poetry was said to be created during the Han Dynasty be a scholar named Zhang Heng (78-138 AD). This scholar was also responsible for the creation of a hydraulic-powered armillary sphere and the seismometer that can detect earthquakes that struck hundreds of killometers away. Other notable Chinese creations introduced during the Han Dynasty were paper, winnowing machines, and the manipulation of metals. Chinese at that time learned how to highly durable metal of steel from wrought iron and cast iron. "Culture, society, and technology"

A Replica of Zhang Heng's seismometer
(http://hua.umf.maine.edu/China/astronomy/tianimage/ZhangHengSeismograph6533crw.jpg)

The economy during the Han period had increased rapidly due to the discovery of a new trade route called the Silk Road in , which stretched all the way to the Mediterranean sea through central Asia to the Roman Empire. With this discovery, the Chinese were able to do business across countries, and since the demands for Chinese goods (silk, porcelain, paper, gunpowder) were so high, the economy had never been better. The Silk Road had also increased the communication between the east and the west. From contacts with the Kushan Empire led to an introduction of a new religion, Buddhism, which came from India. "Silk Road"

The Silk Road extending from Europe through Central Asia to China
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Silk_Route_extant.JPG)

Reasons for Fall

After the reign of Emperor Zhang (78-88 AD), the Han dynasty fell into a struggle for power inside the palace. Neither group was able to solve the problems about harsh conditions of peasants, which cause revolts to spring up. In the year 189 AD, a warlord named Dong Zhou gained control over the politics of the Han Dynasty and the empire and its foundation were all stripped into regions in which different warlords gained control a particular piece of land. From all the warlords, Cao Cao led an army with hopes of gathering the land into a empire of his own. However, he was defeated in a battle by another warlord named Sun Quan, who established a kingdom for himself. Eventually, Cao Cao's heir Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian to abdicate and also established a kingdom of his own in the year 220 AD. Another warlord named Liu Bei also took up some land and turned it into a kingdom. This marked the fall of the Han Dynasty and the new period of the Three Kingdoms."End of Han Dynasty"

The Han empire turned into the Three Kingdoms
(http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/bender4/eall131/EAHReadings/module02/imageforcontent/threekingdom.jpg)

Bibliography

"Han Dynasty." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 14 Jan. 2008. W
ikimedia Foundation, Inc. 15 Jan. 2008
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty.

"Xiang Yu." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 14 Jan. 2008.
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 15 Jan. 2008
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiang_Yu.

"Emergence of Han Dynasty." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 14 Jan. 2008.
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 15 Jan. 2008
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty#Emergence.

"Emperor Gaozu of Han." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 14 Jan. 2008.
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 15 Jan. 2008
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Gaozu_of_Han.

"Sovereigns Han Dynasty."Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 14 Jan. 2008.
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 15 Jan. 2008
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty#Sovereigns_of_Han_Dynasty.

"Julius Caesar." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 14 Jan. 2008.
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 15 Jan. 2008
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_caesar.

"Government of the Han Dynasty." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 14 Jan. 2008.
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 15 Jan. 2008
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_the_Han_Dynasty.

"Culture, Society, and Technology of Han Dynasty." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia.
14 Jan. 2008. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 15 Jan. 2008
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty#Culture.2C_society.2C_and_technology.

"Silk Road." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 14 Jan. 2008.
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 15 Jan. 2008
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_road.

"End of Han Dynasty." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 14 Jan. 2008.
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 15 Jan. 2008
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_of_Han_Dynasty.

Sandstorm (Dust Storm)

Introduction

A sandstorm or a dust storm refer to a common natural hazard that occur when a strong wind blows over a dry surface of land and pick up loose sand and dust along with it, covering an entire area with sand floating in the air.

Dust Storm approaching Stratford, Texas

Causes

Sandstorms are caused by strong winds with high velocity blowing over loose soil or land, which makes large amounts of soil suspend in the air that visibility is reduced. In desert regions, sandstorms will become more frequent due to the strong heating of air, which causes instability in the lower atmosphere and produces stronger winds at the ground surface.

Human contributions to the causes of sandstorms include poor farming, deforestation, and overgrazing. Extensive farming without crop rotation can cause the nutrients in the soil to become depleted. Therefore it makes the soil poor and dry, easy to be carried away by strong winds. Cutting down forests, turning the land into non-forest land exposes the top soil to the environment. After a period of time, the top soil will become worn out so much it can be picked up easily by a gust of strong wind. Overgrazing, which is when vegetation is exposed to livestock grazing for extended periods of time, can cause desertification and soil erosion which would make the soil able to be blown up into the air by the wind.

Effects

The effects of a sandstorm can be devastating every aspect of life. The occurrence of sandstorms cause a lot of damage to agriculture, both to crops and livestocks. The sandstorms are able to turn an area into a vast desert; the abrasiveness of the winds can uproot trees and damage young crop plants. The winds can also remove the nutrient-rich organic matter and cause a decrease in agricultural productivity. As for commerce, urban communities can be heavily affected by sandstorms because everyday transactions require the use of technology and electricity. When a sandstorm hits the city, there can be a mass power outages and infrastructure damages, which would definitely affected the commerce greatly. There can also be reduced visibility in affecting aircraft and road transportation, causing many accidents. In addition, the health of the people can also be affected by the sandstorms. People can develop many respiratory diseases, especially Asthma, from breathing in sand particles and the viruses and microbes that are carried in the sand particles.

However, sandstorms also have beneficial effects; the nutrients brought over along the winds can benefit the place they deposit. Central and South American forests get nutrients from the Sahara; iron-poor ocean regions get iron, and dust in Hawaii increases plantain growth.

Dust plume off the Sahara Desert

Areas Affected

Sandstorms can be found in many places around the world. They are most commonly found in arid and semi-arid regions which are the deserts and steppes regions.

Deserts of the World

Prevention

There are many methods for preventing sandstorms. One prevent ion method is better farming, which means crop rotations and new farming techniques. With crop rotations, the soil will not

become depleted, and thus prevents the fertile top soil to be exposed to strong winds. New farming techniques include having narrow fields, wind strip cropping to lessen the damage from wind erosion, and having ridging of a field would also prevent wind erosion by holding the dust particles to the ground.

Another method for preventing sandstorms is to recover semi-arid areas through the use of technology. Recent study has shown that the use of micro-bacteria can increase the growth rate and strengthen the roots of some plants, making it possible to grow plants in the semi-arid areas. Therefore, the chance of having the dust and sand picked up by strong winds will be less.

LEDC's vs MEDC's

Sandstorms have different impact on LEDC's and MEDC's due to many factors. The most important factor is money. LEDC's will be more affected than MEDC's because they are not able to afford elaborate warning systems, thus resulting in higher death tolls and damage. Another factor that will determine a difference between LEDC's and MEDC's when faced with sandstorms is economy. The economy of LEDC's will likely drop drastically, while that of MEDC's will only function less efficiently when faced with sandstorms. That is because the economy of LEDC's mostly rely on agriculture, so when a sandstorm strikes, the agricultural productivity will take heavy damages. On the other hand, MEDC's, whose economy mostly rely on industry, will suffer little damages.

Why do people live in the hazard prone area?

People live in areas prone to facing sandstorms due to many reasons. The reasons are that the people are too poor to move or they cannot move due to some difficulties. As seen in China, which has a long history of sandstorms due to its close proximity to the Gobi desert, where people still live where they always do because people are either too poor to move to other countries or they cannot move to other places because every place is overcrowd. Another example is the population of Iraq, who had experienced a large sandstorm last April and is unable to move to other places because Iraq is war-restricted. There are other countries such as Afghanistan and Iran whose population are forced to stay inside the country because they are also war-restricted.

Beijing's Spring Dust Storm

Case Study:
Chinese Dust Storm March 2002

Causes

The dust storm started forming in the northern part of China during the hottest time of the year. The causes for this dust storm are said to be the arid weather of the north, the ploughing up of pasture land for agriculture and prevailing winds. It is said that the storm was strengthened by a severe drought that was going on in the north at that time, and that it was the worst dust storm in a decade.

A satellite image of the dust storm over Beijing

Effects

The dust storm spread itself across to the capital Beijing, South Korea, and reached as far as Russia's Pacific port of Vladivostok. Withins hours, the whole region of the storm is engulfed in yellow sand, affecting an estimated number of 100 million people. The storm also caused many traffic and aircraft delays due to reduced visibility; about 35 domestic flights were canceled and 75 were had to be called off. Children and elders were quickly warned to stay indoors. After the dust storm, Beijing is now less than 250-kilometers from the threatening desert.

Protection Measures

After the dust storm, the Chinese government had vowed to try to deal with the problems with similar natural hazard. The government had invested in $6.8 billion on an environmental program which includes a project of planting a green belt of trees around the capital Beijing to reduce the damage from future sandstorms, and to ensure the safety when the 2008 Olympics is being hosted.

Experts warned that there could be sandstorms could be a major problem for the 2008 Olympics that Beijing is hosting

Bibliography

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_storm

• http://snrs.unl.edu/amet351/krohn/effects.html

• http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1887000.stm

• http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1883494.stm